# Exercise 2.11: Arithmetic Coding

Interval nesting for arithmetic coding

Arithmetic coding is a special form of entropy coding:   The symbol probabilities must also be known here.

In this exercise, we assume  $M = 3$  symbols, which we name with  $\rm X$,  $\rm Y$  and $\rm Z$.  While Huffman coding is done symbol by symbol, in Arithmetic Coding  $(\rm AC)$  a sequence of symbols of length  $N$  is encoded together.  The coding result is a real numerical value  $r$  from the interval

$$I = \big[B, \ E \big) = \big[B, \ B +{\it \Delta} \big)\hspace{0.05cm}.$$

This notation means:

• The beginning  $B$  belongs to the interval  $I$.
• The end  $E$  is no longer contained in  $I$ .
• The interval width is  ${\it} {\it \Delta} = E - B$.

Of the infinite number of possible values  $r \in I$  $($since  $r$  is real-valued, i.e. not an integer$)$,  the numerical value that gets by with the smallest number of bits is selected.  Here are two examples for clarification:

• The decimal value  $r = 3/4$  can be represented with two bits:
$$r = 1 \cdot 2^{-1} + 1 \cdot 2^{-2} = 0.75 \hspace{0.3cm} \Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{binary:}\hspace{0.25cm} 0.11\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text {Code:} \hspace{0.25cm} \boldsymbol{\rm 11} \hspace{0.05cm},$$
• The decimal value  $r = 1/3$ , on the other hand, requires an infinite number of bits:
$$r = 0 \cdot 2^{-1} + 1 \cdot 2^{-2} + 1 \cdot 2^{-3}+ 1 \cdot 2^{-4}+ 0 \cdot 2^{-5} + 1 \cdot 2^{-6} + \hspace{0.05cm}\text{...}$$
$$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{binär:} \hspace{0.25cm}0.011101\hspace{0.05cm}\text{...}\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Code:} \hspace{0.25cm} \boldsymbol{\rm 011101}\hspace{0.05cm}\text{...} \hspace{0.05cm}.$$

In this task we restrict ourselves to the determination of the current interval  $I$, marked by the beginning  $B$  as well as the end  $E$  and the width  ${\it \Delta}$ respectively.

• This determination is done according to the interval nesting in the above diagram.
• The hatching shows that the sequence begins with the ternary symbols  $\rm XXY$ .

The algorithm works as follows:

• Before the beginning  (quasi at the zero symbol)  the entire probability range is divided into three areas according to the probabilities  $p_{\rm X}$,  $p_{\rm Y}$  and  $p_{\rm Z}$ .  The limits are
$$B_0 = 0\hspace{0.05cm},\hspace{0.4cm}C_0 = p_{\rm X}\hspace{0.05cm},\hspace{0.4cm}D_0 = p_{\rm X} + p_{\rm Y}\hspace{0.05cm},\hspace{0.4cm} E_0 = p_{\rm X} + p_{\rm Y}+ p_{\rm Z} = 1\hspace{0.05cm}.$$
• The first symbol of the sequence to be coded is  $\rm X$. This means:   The selected interval is limited by  $B_0$  and  $C_0$ .
• This interval is divided with new beginning  $B_1 = B_0$  and new end  $E_1 = C_0$  in the same way as the total range in the zero step.
The intermediate values are  $C_1$  and  $D_1$.
• The further interval division is your task.  For example, in subtask  (2)  the boundaries  $B_2$,  $C_2$,  $D_2$  and  $E_2$  for the second symbol  $\rm X$  are to be determined
and in subtask  (3)  the boundaries  $B_3$,  $C_3$,  $D_3$  and  $E_3$  for the third symbol  $\rm Y$ are to be determined.

Hints:

### Questions

1

What are the underlying probabilities of the graph?

 $p_{\rm X} \hspace{0.10cm} = \$ $p_{\rm Y} \hspace{0.10cm} = \$ $p_{\rm Z} \hspace{0.15cm} = \$

2

What are the range limits after coding the second symbol  $\rm X$?

 $B_2 \hspace{0.12cm} = \$ $C_2 \hspace{0.15cm} = \$ $D_2 \hspace{0.10cm} = \$ $E_2 \hspace{0.15cm} = \$

3

What are the range limits after coding the third symbol  $\rm Y$?

 $B_3 \hspace{0.12cm} = \$ $C_3 \hspace{0.15cm} = \$ $D_3 \hspace{0.10cm} = \$ $E_3 \hspace{0.15cm} = \$

4

After coding the fourth symbol,  $B_4 = 0.343$.  What follows from this?

 The fourth symbol was  $\rm X$. The fourth symbol was  $\rm Y$. The fourth symbol was  $\rm Z$.

5

After more symbols, the interval is bounded by  $B_7 = 0.3564456$  and  $E_7 = 0.359807$ .  Which statements are true?

 The symbol sequence to be encoded is  $\rm XXYXXZX$. The symbol sequence to be encoded is  $\rm XXYXXXZ$. The width of the resulting interval is  ${\it \Delta} = p_{\rm X}^5 \cdot p_{\rm Y} \cdot p_{\rm Z}$.

6

Which real numbers  (in binary form)  fall into the selected interval?

 $r_1 = (0.101100)_{\text{binary}}$, $r_2 = (0.010111)_{\text{binary}}$, $r_3 = (0.001011)_{\text{binary}}$.

### Solution

#### Solution

Interval nesting with all numerical values

(1)  From the graph on the information page you can read the probabilities:

$$p_{\rm X} = 0.7\hspace{0.05cm},\hspace{0.2cm}p_{\rm Y} = 0.1\hspace{0.05cm},\hspace{0.2cm}p_{\rm Z} = 0.2\hspace{0.05cm}.$$

(2)  The second symbol is also  $\rm X$.  Using the same procedure as in the task description, we get

$$B_2 \hspace{0.1cm}\underline{= 0}\hspace{0.05cm},\hspace{0.2cm}C_2 = 0.49 \cdot 0.7 \hspace{0.1cm}\underline{= 0.343}\hspace{0.05cm},\hspace{0.2cm} D_2 \hspace{0.1cm} \underline{= 0.392}\hspace{0.05cm},\hspace{0.2cm}E_2 = C_1 \hspace{0.1cm}\underline{= 0.49} \hspace{0.05cm}.$$

(3)  For the third symbol  $\rm Y$  the limitations  $B_3 = C_2$  and  $E_3 = D_2$ now apply:

$$B_3 \hspace{0.1cm}\underline{= 0.343}\hspace{0.05cm},\hspace{0.2cm}C_3 \hspace{0.1cm}\underline{= 0.3773}\hspace{0.05cm},\hspace{0.2cm} D_3 \hspace{0.1cm} \underline{= 0.3822}\hspace{0.05cm},\hspace{0.2cm}E_3 \hspace{0.1cm}\underline{= 0.392} \hspace{0.05cm}.$$

(4) Solution suggestion 1 is correct:

• From  $B_4 = 0.343 = B_3$  (to be read in the diagram on the data sheet) it follows that the fourth source symbol was an  $\rm X$.

(5)  Proposed solutions 2 and 3 are correct:

• The graph shows the interval nesting with all previous results.  You can see from the hatching that the second suggested solution gives the correct sequence of symbols:   $\rm XXYXXXZ$.
• The interval width  $\it \Delta$  can really be determined according to suggestion 3. It holds:
$${\it \Delta} = 0.359807 - 0.3564456 = 0.003614 \hspace{0.05cm},$$
$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} {\it \Delta} =p_{\rm X}^5 \cdot p_{\rm Y} \cdot p_{\rm Z} = 0.7^5 \cdot 0.1 \cdot 0.2 = 0.003614 \hspace{0.05cm}.$$

(6)  Correct is the proposed solution 2   ⇒   $r_2 = (0.010111)_{\text{binary}}$, because of:

$$r_2 = 0 \cdot 2^{-1} + 1 \cdot 2^{-2} + 0 \cdot 2^{-3}+ 1 \cdot 2^{-4}+ 1 \cdot 2^{-5} + 1 \cdot 2^{-6} = 0.359375\hspace{0.05cm}.$$
• Proposition 1:   $r_1 = (0.101100)_{\text{binary}}$  must be ruled out because the associated decimal value is  $r_1 > (0.5)_{\text{decimal}}$ .
• The last suggested solution is also wrong, since  $r_3 = (0.001011)_{\text{binary}} < (0.01)_{\text{binary}} = (0.25)_{\text{decimal}}$.