Difference between revisions of "Information Theory/Differential Entropy"
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<br> | <br> | ||
{{BlaueBox|TEXT= | {{BlaueBox|TEXT= | ||
− | $\text{ | + | $\text{Generalisation:}$ |
− | + | The '''differential entropy''' $h(X)$ of a continuous value random variable $X$ with probability density function $f_X(x)$ is: | |
:$$h(X) = | :$$h(X) = | ||
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\hspace{0.05cm}.$$ | \hspace{0.05cm}.$$ | ||
− | + | A pseudo-unit must be added in each case: | |
− | *„nat” | + | *„nat” when using „ln” ⇒ natural logarithm, |
− | *„bit” | + | *„bit” when using „log<sub>2</sub>” ⇒ binary logarithm.}} |
− | + | While the (conventional) entropy of a discrete-value random variable $X$ is always $H(X) ≥ 0$ , the differential entropy $h(X)$ of a continuous-value random variable can also be negative. From this it is already evident that $h(X)$ , in contrast to $H(X)$ , cannot be interpreted as „uncertainty”. | |
− | [[File:P_ID2854__Inf_T_4_1_S3a_neu.png|right|frame| | + | [[File:P_ID2854__Inf_T_4_1_S3a_neu.png|right|frame|PDF of an equally distributed random variable]] |
{{GraueBox|TEXT= | {{GraueBox|TEXT= | ||
− | $\text{ | + | $\text{Example 4:}$ |
− | + | The upper graph shows the probability density of a random variable $X$ equally distributed between $x_{\rm min}$ and $x_{\rm max}$ . For its differential entropy one obtains in „nat”: | |
:$$\begin{align*}h(X) & = - \hspace{-0.18cm}\int\limits_{x_{\rm min} }^{x_{\rm max} } \hspace{-0.28cm} \frac{1}{x_{\rm max}\hspace{-0.05cm} - \hspace{-0.05cm}x_{\rm min} } \cdot {\rm ln} \hspace{0.1cm}\big [ \frac{1}{x_{\rm max}\hspace{-0.05cm} - \hspace{-0.05cm}x_{\rm min} }\big ] \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}x \\ & = | :$$\begin{align*}h(X) & = - \hspace{-0.18cm}\int\limits_{x_{\rm min} }^{x_{\rm max} } \hspace{-0.28cm} \frac{1}{x_{\rm max}\hspace{-0.05cm} - \hspace{-0.05cm}x_{\rm min} } \cdot {\rm ln} \hspace{0.1cm}\big [ \frac{1}{x_{\rm max}\hspace{-0.05cm} - \hspace{-0.05cm}x_{\rm min} }\big ] \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}x \\ & = | ||
{\rm ln} \hspace{0.1cm} \big[ {x_{\rm max}\hspace{-0.05cm} - \hspace{-0.05cm}x_{\rm min} }\big ] \cdot \big [ \frac{1}{x_{\rm max}\hspace{-0.05cm} - \hspace{-0.05cm}x_{\rm min} } \big ]_{x_{\rm min} }^{x_{\rm max} }={\rm ln} \hspace{0.1cm} \big[ {x_{\rm max}\hspace{-0.05cm} - \hspace{-0.05cm}x_{\rm min} } \big]\hspace{0.05cm}.\end{align*} $$ | {\rm ln} \hspace{0.1cm} \big[ {x_{\rm max}\hspace{-0.05cm} - \hspace{-0.05cm}x_{\rm min} }\big ] \cdot \big [ \frac{1}{x_{\rm max}\hspace{-0.05cm} - \hspace{-0.05cm}x_{\rm min} } \big ]_{x_{\rm min} }^{x_{\rm max} }={\rm ln} \hspace{0.1cm} \big[ {x_{\rm max}\hspace{-0.05cm} - \hspace{-0.05cm}x_{\rm min} } \big]\hspace{0.05cm}.\end{align*} $$ | ||
− | + | The equation for the differential entropy in „bit” is: | |
:$$h(X) = \log_2 \big[x_{\rm max} – x_{ \rm min} \big].$$ | :$$h(X) = \log_2 \big[x_{\rm max} – x_{ \rm min} \big].$$ | ||
− | [[File:P_ID2855__Inf_T_4_1_S3b_neu.png|left|frame|$h(X)$ | + | [[File:P_ID2855__Inf_T_4_1_S3b_neu.png|left|frame|$h(X)$ for different rectangular density functions]] |
− | <br><br><br><br> | + | <br><br><br><br>The graph on the left shows the numerical evaluation of the above result by means of some examples. |
}} | }} | ||
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT= | {{BlaueBox|TEXT= | ||
$\text{Interpretation:}$ | $\text{Interpretation:}$ | ||
− | + | From the six sketches in the last example, important properties of the differential entropy $h(X)$ can be read: | |
− | * | + | *The differential entropy is not changed by a PDF shift $($um $k)$ : |
− | :$$h(X + k) = h(X) \hspace{0.2cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.2cm} \text{ | + | :$$h(X + k) = h(X) \hspace{0.2cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.2cm} \text{For example} \ \ h_3(X) = h_4(X) = h_5(X) \hspace{0.05cm}.$$ |
− | * $h(X)$ | + | * $h(X)$ changes by compression/spreading of the PDF by the factor $k ≠ 0$ as follows: |
:$$h( k\hspace{-0.05cm} \cdot \hspace{-0.05cm}X) = h(X) + {\rm log}_2 \hspace{0.05cm} \vert k \vert \hspace{0.2cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.2cm} | :$$h( k\hspace{-0.05cm} \cdot \hspace{-0.05cm}X) = h(X) + {\rm log}_2 \hspace{0.05cm} \vert k \vert \hspace{0.2cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.2cm} | ||
\text{Beispielsweise gilt} \ \ h_6(X) = h_5(AX) = h_5(X) + {\rm log}_2 \hspace{0.05cm} (A) = | \text{Beispielsweise gilt} \ \ h_6(X) = h_5(AX) = h_5(X) + {\rm log}_2 \hspace{0.05cm} (A) = | ||
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− | + | Furthermore, many of the equations derived in the chapter [[Information_Theory/Verschiedene_Entropien_zweidimensionaler_Zufallsgrößen|different entropies of two-dimensional Random Variables]] for the discrete-value case also apply to continuous-value random variables. | |
− | + | From the following compilation one can see that often only the (large) $H$ has to be replaced by a (small) $h$ as well as the probability mass function $\rm (PMF)$ by the corresponding probability density function $\rm (PDF)$ . | |
− | * ' | + | * '''Conditional Differential Entropy''': |
:$$H(X \hspace{-0.05cm}\mid \hspace{-0.05cm} Y) = {\rm E} \hspace{-0.1cm}\left [ {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm}\frac{1}{P_{\hspace{0.03cm}X \mid \hspace{0.03cm} Y} (X \hspace{-0.05cm}\mid \hspace{-0.05cm} Y)}\right ]=\hspace{-0.04cm} \sum_{(x, y) \hspace{0.1cm}\in \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm supp} \hspace{0.03cm}(\hspace{-0.03cm}P_{XY}\hspace{-0.08cm})} | :$$H(X \hspace{-0.05cm}\mid \hspace{-0.05cm} Y) = {\rm E} \hspace{-0.1cm}\left [ {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm}\frac{1}{P_{\hspace{0.03cm}X \mid \hspace{0.03cm} Y} (X \hspace{-0.05cm}\mid \hspace{-0.05cm} Y)}\right ]=\hspace{-0.04cm} \sum_{(x, y) \hspace{0.1cm}\in \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm supp} \hspace{0.03cm}(\hspace{-0.03cm}P_{XY}\hspace{-0.08cm})} | ||
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\hspace{0.15cm}{\rm d}x\hspace{0.15cm}{\rm d}y\hspace{0.05cm}.$$ | \hspace{0.15cm}{\rm d}x\hspace{0.15cm}{\rm d}y\hspace{0.05cm}.$$ | ||
− | * ' | + | * '''Joint Differential Entropy''': |
:$$H(XY) = {\rm E} \left [ {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{1}{P_{XY}(X, Y)}\right ] =\hspace{-0.04cm} \sum_{(x, y) \hspace{0.1cm}\in \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm supp} \hspace{0.03cm}(\hspace{-0.03cm}P_{XY}\hspace{-0.08cm})} | :$$H(XY) = {\rm E} \left [ {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{1}{P_{XY}(X, Y)}\right ] =\hspace{-0.04cm} \sum_{(x, y) \hspace{0.1cm}\in \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm supp} \hspace{0.03cm}(\hspace{-0.03cm}P_{XY}\hspace{-0.08cm})} | ||
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\hspace{0.15cm}{\rm d}x\hspace{0.15cm}{\rm d}y\hspace{0.05cm}.$$ | \hspace{0.15cm}{\rm d}x\hspace{0.15cm}{\rm d}y\hspace{0.05cm}.$$ | ||
− | * ''' | + | * '''Chain rule''' of differential entropy: |
:$$H(X_1\hspace{0.05cm}X_2\hspace{0.05cm}\text{...} \hspace{0.1cm}X_n) =\sum_{i = 1}^{n} | :$$H(X_1\hspace{0.05cm}X_2\hspace{0.05cm}\text{...} \hspace{0.1cm}X_n) =\sum_{i = 1}^{n} | ||
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\hspace{0.05cm}.$$ | \hspace{0.05cm}.$$ | ||
− | * ''' | + | * '''Kullback–Leibler distance''' between the random variables $X$ and $Y$: |
:$$D(P_X \hspace{0.05cm} || \hspace{0.05cm}P_Y) = {\rm E} \left [ {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{P_X(X)}{P_Y(X)}\right ] \hspace{0.2cm}=\hspace{0.2cm} \sum_{x \hspace{0.1cm}\in \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm supp} \hspace{0.03cm}(\hspace{-0.03cm}P_{X})\hspace{-0.8cm}} | :$$D(P_X \hspace{0.05cm} || \hspace{0.05cm}P_Y) = {\rm E} \left [ {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{P_X(X)}{P_Y(X)}\right ] \hspace{0.2cm}=\hspace{0.2cm} \sum_{x \hspace{0.1cm}\in \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm supp} \hspace{0.03cm}(\hspace{-0.03cm}P_{X})\hspace{-0.8cm}} |
Revision as of 19:01, 12 April 2021
Contents
- 1 # OVERVIEW OF THE FOURTH MAIN CHAPTER #
- 2 Properties of continuous-value random variables
- 3 Entropy of continuous-value random variables after quantisation
- 4 Definition and properties of differential entropy
- 5 Differentielle Entropie einiger spitzenwertbegrenzter Zufallsgrößen
- 6 Differentielle Entropie einiger leistungsbegrenzter Zufallsgrößen
- 7 Beweis: Maximale differentielle Entropie bei Spitzenwertbegrenzung
- 8 Beweis: Maximale differentielle Entropie bei Leistungsbegrenzung
- 9 Aufgaben zum Kapitel
# OVERVIEW OF THE FOURTH MAIN CHAPTER #
In the last chapter of this book, the information-theoretical quantities defined so far for the discrete-value case are adapted in such a way that they can also be applied to continuous-value random quantities.
- For example, the entropy $H(X)$ for the discrete-value random variable $X$ becomes the differential entropy $h(X)$ in the continuous-value case..
- While $H(X)$ indicates the „uncertainty” with regard to the discrete random variable $X$ with regard to the discrete random variable $h(X)$ in the same way in the continuous case.
Many of the relationships derived in the third chapter „Information between two discrete-value random variables ⇒ see table of contents for conventional entropy also apply to differential entropy. Thus, the differential joint entropy $h(XY)$ can also be given for continuous-value random variables $X$ and $Y$ and likewise the two conditional differential entropies $h(Y|X)$ and $h(X|Y)$.
In detail, this main chapter deals with:
- the special features of continuous value random variables,
- the definition and calculation of the differential entropy as well as its properties,
- the mutual information between two value-continuous random variables,
- the capacity of the AWGN channel and several such parallel Gaussian channels,
- the channel coding theorem, one of the „highlights” of Shannon's information theory,
- the AWGN channel capacity for discrete-value input sines (BPSK, QPSK).
Properties of continuous-value random variables
Up to now, discrete-value random variables of the form $X = \{x_1,\ x_2, \hspace{0.05cm}\text{...}\hspace{0.05cm} , x_μ, \text{...} ,\ x_M\}$ have always been considered, which from an information-theoretical point of view are completely characterised by their probability mass function (PMF) $P_X(X)$ :
- $$P_X(X) = \big [ \hspace{0.1cm} p_1, p_2, \hspace{0.05cm}\text{...} \hspace{0.15cm}, p_{\mu},\hspace{0.05cm} \text{...}\hspace{0.15cm}, p_M \hspace{0.1cm}\big ] \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm mit} \hspace{0.3cm} p_{\mu}= P_X(x_{\mu})= {\rm Pr}( X = x_{\mu}) \hspace{0.05cm}.$$
A continuous-value random variable, ' on the other hand, can assume any value – at least in finite intervals:
- Due to the uncountable supply of values, the description by a probability function is not possible in this case, or at least it does not make sense:
- This would result in $M \to ∞$ as well as $p_1 \to 0$, $p_2 \to 0$, etc.
For the description of value-continuous random variables, one uses equally according to the definitions in the book Theory of Stochastic Signals :
- the probability density function (PDF):
- $$f_X(x_0)= \lim_{{\rm \Delta} x\to \rm 0}\frac{p_{{\rm \Delta} x}}{{\rm \Delta} x} = \lim_{{\rm \Delta} x\to \rm 0}\frac{{\rm Pr} \{ x_0- {\rm \Delta} x/\rm 2 \le \it X \le x_{\rm 0} +{\rm \Delta} x/\rm 2\}}{{\rm \Delta} x};$$
- In words: the PDF value at $x_0$ gives the probability $p_{Δx}$ that $X$ lies in an (infinitely small) interval of width $Δx$ around $x_0$ , divided by $Δx$; (note the entries in the adjacent graph);
- the mean value (first-order moment):
- $$m_1 = {\rm E}\big[ X \big]= \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \hspace{-0.1cm} x \cdot f_X(x) \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}x \hspace{0.05cm};$$
- the variance (second-order moment):
- $$\sigma^2 = {\rm E}\big[(X- m_1 )^2 \big]= \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \hspace{-0.1cm} (x- m_1 )^2 \cdot f_X(x- m_1 ) \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}x \hspace{0.05cm};$$
- the cumulative distribution fucntion (CDF):
- $$F_X(x) = \int_{-\infty}^{x} \hspace{-0.1cm}f_X(\xi) \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}\xi \hspace{0.2cm} = \hspace{0.2cm} {\rm Pr}(X \le x)\hspace{0.05cm}.$$
Note that both the PDF area and the CDF final value are always equal to $1$ .
$\text{Nomenclature notes on PDF and CDF:}$
We use in this chapter for a probability density function the representation form $f_X(x)$ often used in the literature, where holds::
- $X$ denotes the (discrete-value or continuous-value) random variable,
- $x$ is a possible realisation of $X$ ⇒ $x ∈ X$.
Accordingly, we denote the cumulative distribution function (CDF) of the random variable $X$ by $F_X(x)$ according to the following definition:
- $$F_X(x) = \int_{-\infty}^{x} \hspace{-0.1cm}f_X(\xi) \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}\xi \hspace{0.2cm} = \hspace{0.2cm} {\rm Pr}(X \le x)\hspace{0.05cm}.$$
In other $\rm LNTwww$ books, we often write so as not to use up two characters for one variable:
- For the PDF $f_x(x)$ ⇒ no distinction between random variable and realising, and
- for the CDF $F_x(r) = {\rm Pr}(x ≤ r)$ ⇒ here one needs a second variable in any case.
We apologise for this formal inaccuracy.
$\text{Example 1:}$ We now consider an important special case with the uniform distribution.
- The graph shows the course of two uniformly distributed variables, which can assume all values between $1$ and $5$ $($mean value $m_1 = 3)$ with equal probability.
- On the left is the result of a random process, on the right a deterministic signal with the same amplitude distribution.
The probability density function of the uniform distribution has the course sketched in the second graph above:
- $$f_X(x) = \left\{ \begin{array}{c} \hspace{0.25cm}(x_{\rm max} - x_{\rm min})^{-1} \\ 1/2 \cdot (x_{\rm max} - x_{\rm min})^{-1} \\ \hspace{0.25cm} 0 \\ \end{array} \right. \begin{array}{*{20}c} {\rm{f\ddot{u}r} } \\ {\rm{f\ddot{u}r} } \\ {\rm{f\ddot{u}r} } \\ \end{array} \begin{array}{*{20}l} {x_{\rm min} < x < x_{\rm max},} \\ x ={x_{\rm min} \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm und}\hspace{0.1cm}x = x_{\rm max},} \\ x > x_{\rm max}. \\ \end{array}$$
The following equations are obtained here for the mean $m_1 ={\rm E}\big[X\big]$ and the variance $σ^2={\rm E}\big[(X – m_1)^2\big]$ :
- $$m_1 = \frac{x_{\rm max} + x_{\rm min} }{2}\hspace{0.05cm}, $$
- $$\sigma^2 = \frac{(x_{\rm max} - x_{\rm min})^2}{12}\hspace{0.05cm}.$$
Shown below is the cumulative distribution function (CDF):
- $$F_X(x) = \int_{-\infty}^{x} \hspace{-0.1cm}f_X(\xi) \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}\xi \hspace{0.2cm} = \hspace{0.2cm} {\rm Pr}(X \le x)\hspace{0.05cm}.$$
- This is identically zero for $x ≤ x_{\rm min}$, increases linearly thereafter and reaches the CDF final value of $1$ at $x = x_{\rm max}$ .
- The probability that the random variable $X$ takes on a value between $3$ and $4$ can be determined from both the PDF and the CDF:
- $${\rm Pr}(3 \le X \le 4) = \int_{3}^{4} \hspace{-0.1cm}f_X(\xi) \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}\xi = 0.25\hspace{0.05cm}\hspace{0.05cm},$$
- $${\rm Pr}(3 \le X \le 4) = F_X(4) - F_X(3) = 0.25\hspace{0.05cm}.$$
Furthermore, note:
- The result $X = 0$ is excluded for this random variable ⇒ ${\rm Pr}(X = 0) = 0$.
- The result $X = 4$ , on the other hand, is quite possible. Nevertheless, auch hier ${\rm Pr}(X = 4) = 0 $also applies here.
Entropy of continuous-value random variables after quantisation
We now consider a continuous value random variable $X$ in the range $0 \le x \le 1$.
- We quantise the continuous random variable $X$, in order to be able to further apply the previous entropy calculation. We call the resulting discrete (quantised) quantity $Z$.
- Let the number of quantisation steps be $M$, so that each quantisation interval $μ$ has the width ${\it Δ} = 1/M$ in the present PDF. We denote the interval centres by $x_μ$.
- The probability $p_μ = {\rm Pr}(Z = z_μ)$ with respect to $Z$ is equal to the probability that the continuous random variable $X$ has a value between $x_μ - {\it Δ}/2$ and $x_μ + {\it Δ}/2$ .
- First we set $M = 2$ and then double this value in each iteration. This makes the quantisation increasingly finer. In the $n$th try gilt dann $M = 2^n$ and ${\it Δ} =2^{–n}$ then apply.
$\text{Example 2:}$ The graph shows the results of the first three trials for an asymmetrical triangular PDF $($betweeen $0$ and $1)$:
- $n = 1 \ ⇒ \ M = 2 \ ⇒ \ {\it Δ} = 1/2\text{:}$ $H(Z) = 0.811\ \rm bit,$
- $n = 2 \ ⇒ \ M = 4 \ ⇒ \ {\it Δ} = 1/4\text{:}$ $H(Z) = 1.749\ \rm bit,$
- $n = 3 \ ⇒ \ M = 8 \ ⇒ \ {\it Δ} = 1/8\text{:}$ $H(Z) = 2.729\ \rm bit.$
Additionally, the following quantities can be taken from the graph, for example for ${\it Δ} = 1/8$:
- The interval centres are at
- $$x_1 = 1/16,\ x_2 = 3/16,\text{ ...} \ ,\ x_8 = 15/16 $$
- $$ ⇒ \ x_μ = {\it Δ} · (μ - 1/2).$$
- The interval areas result in
- $$p_μ = {\it Δ} · f_X(x_μ) ⇒ p_8 = 1/8 · (7/8+1)/2 = 15/64.$$
- Thus, for the probability function of the quantised random variabl $Z$, we obtain::
- $$P_Z(Z) = (1/64, \ 3/64, \ 5/64, \ 7/64, \ 9/64, \ 11/64, \ 13/64, \ 15/64).$$
$\text{Conclusion:}$ We interpret the results of this experiment as follows:
- The entropy $H(Z)$ becomes larger and larger as $M$ increases.
- The limit of $H(Z)$ for $M \to ∞ \ ⇒ \ {\it Δ} → 0$ is infinite.
- Thus, the entropy $H(X)$ of the continuous-value random variable $X$ is also infinite.
- It follows: The previous definition of entropy fails here.
To verify our empirical result, we assume the following equation:
- $$H(Z) = \hspace{0.2cm} \sum_{\mu = 1}^{M} \hspace{0.2cm} p_{\mu} \cdot {\rm log}_2 \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{1}{p_{\mu}}= \hspace{0.2cm} \sum_{\mu = 1}^{M} \hspace{0.2cm} {\it \Delta} \cdot f_X(x_{\mu} ) \cdot {\rm log}_2 \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{1}{{\it \Delta} \cdot f_X(x_{\mu} )}\hspace{0.05cm}.$$
We now split $H(Z) = S_1 + S_2$ into two sums:
- $$\begin{align*}S_1 & = {\rm log}_2 \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{1}{\it \Delta} \cdot \hspace{0.2cm} \sum_{\mu = 1}^{M} \hspace{0.02cm} {\it \Delta} \cdot f_X(x_{\mu} ) \approx - {\rm log}_2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\it \Delta} \hspace{0.05cm},\\ S_2 & = \hspace{0.05cm} \sum_{\mu = 1}^{M} \hspace{0.2cm} f_X(x_{\mu} ) \cdot {\rm log}_2 \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{1}{ f_X(x_{\mu} ) } \cdot {\it \Delta} \hspace{0.2cm}\approx \hspace{0.2cm} \int_{0}^{1} \hspace{0.05cm} f_X(x) \cdot {\rm log}_2 \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{1}{ f_X(x) } \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}x \hspace{0.05cm}.\end{align*}$$
- The approximation $S_1 ≈ -\log_2 {\it Δ}$ applies exactly only in the borderline case ${\it Δ} → 0$.
- The given approximation for $S_2$ is also only valid for small ${\it Δ} → {\rm d}x$, so that one should replace the sum by the integral.
$\text{Generalisation:}$ If one approximates the value-continuous random variable $X$ with the PDF $f_X(x)$ by a discrete-value random variable $Z$ by performing a (fine) quantisation with the interval width ${\it Δ}$ , one obtains for the entropy of the random variable $Z$:
- $$H(Z) \approx - {\rm log}_2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\it \Delta} \hspace{0.2cm}+ \hspace{-0.35cm} \int\limits_{\text{supp}(f_X)} \hspace{-0.35cm} f_X(x) \cdot {\rm log}_2 \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{1}{ f_X(x) } \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}x = - {\rm log}_2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\it \Delta} \hspace{0.2cm} + h(X) \hspace{0.5cm}\big [{\rm in \hspace{0.15cm}bit}\big ] \hspace{0.05cm}.$$
The integral describes the differential entropy $h(X)$ of the continuous-value random variable $X$. For the special case ${\it Δ} = 1/M = 2^{-n}$ , the above equation can also be written as follows:
- $$H(Z) = n + h(X) \hspace{0.5cm}\big [{\rm in \hspace{0.15cm}bit}\big ] \hspace{0.05cm}.$$
- In the borderline case ${\it Δ} → 0 \ ⇒ \ M → ∞ \ ⇒ \ n → ∞$ , the entropy of the continuous-value random variable is also infinite: $H(X) → ∞$.
- Even with smaller $n$ , this equation is only an approximation for $H(Z)$ , with the differential entropy $h(X)$ of the continuous-value quantity serving as a correction factor.
$\text{Example 3:}$ As in $\text{example 2}$ , we consider a triangular PDF $($between $0$ and $1)$. Its differential entropy, as calculated in task 4.2 results in
- $$h(X) = \hspace{0.05cm}-0.279 \ \rm bit.$$
- The table shows the entropy $H(Z)$ of the quantity $Z$ quantised with $n$ bits .
- Already fo $n = 3$ one can see an agreement between the approximation (lower row) and the exact calculation (row 2).
- For $n = 10$ , the approximation will agree even better with the exact calculation (which is extremely time-consuming) .
Definition and properties of differential entropy
$\text{Generalisation:}$ The differential entropy $h(X)$ of a continuous value random variable $X$ with probability density function $f_X(x)$ is:
- $$h(X) = \hspace{0.1cm} - \hspace{-0.45cm} \int\limits_{\text{supp}(f_X)} \hspace{-0.35cm} f_X(x) \cdot {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} \big[ f_X(x) \big] \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}x \hspace{0.6cm}{\rm mit}\hspace{0.6cm} {\rm supp}(f_X) = \{ x\text{:} \ f_X(x) > 0 \} \hspace{0.05cm}.$$
A pseudo-unit must be added in each case:
- „nat” when using „ln” ⇒ natural logarithm,
- „bit” when using „log2” ⇒ binary logarithm.
While the (conventional) entropy of a discrete-value random variable $X$ is always $H(X) ≥ 0$ , the differential entropy $h(X)$ of a continuous-value random variable can also be negative. From this it is already evident that $h(X)$ , in contrast to $H(X)$ , cannot be interpreted as „uncertainty”.
$\text{Example 4:}$ The upper graph shows the probability density of a random variable $X$ equally distributed between $x_{\rm min}$ and $x_{\rm max}$ . For its differential entropy one obtains in „nat”:
- $$\begin{align*}h(X) & = - \hspace{-0.18cm}\int\limits_{x_{\rm min} }^{x_{\rm max} } \hspace{-0.28cm} \frac{1}{x_{\rm max}\hspace{-0.05cm} - \hspace{-0.05cm}x_{\rm min} } \cdot {\rm ln} \hspace{0.1cm}\big [ \frac{1}{x_{\rm max}\hspace{-0.05cm} - \hspace{-0.05cm}x_{\rm min} }\big ] \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}x \\ & = {\rm ln} \hspace{0.1cm} \big[ {x_{\rm max}\hspace{-0.05cm} - \hspace{-0.05cm}x_{\rm min} }\big ] \cdot \big [ \frac{1}{x_{\rm max}\hspace{-0.05cm} - \hspace{-0.05cm}x_{\rm min} } \big ]_{x_{\rm min} }^{x_{\rm max} }={\rm ln} \hspace{0.1cm} \big[ {x_{\rm max}\hspace{-0.05cm} - \hspace{-0.05cm}x_{\rm min} } \big]\hspace{0.05cm}.\end{align*} $$
The equation for the differential entropy in „bit” is:
- $$h(X) = \log_2 \big[x_{\rm max} – x_{ \rm min} \big].$$
The graph on the left shows the numerical evaluation of the above result by means of some examples.
$\text{Interpretation:}$ From the six sketches in the last example, important properties of the differential entropy $h(X)$ can be read:
- The differential entropy is not changed by a PDF shift $($um $k)$ :
- $$h(X + k) = h(X) \hspace{0.2cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.2cm} \text{For example} \ \ h_3(X) = h_4(X) = h_5(X) \hspace{0.05cm}.$$
- $h(X)$ changes by compression/spreading of the PDF by the factor $k ≠ 0$ as follows:
- $$h( k\hspace{-0.05cm} \cdot \hspace{-0.05cm}X) = h(X) + {\rm log}_2 \hspace{0.05cm} \vert k \vert \hspace{0.2cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.2cm} \text{Beispielsweise gilt} \ \ h_6(X) = h_5(AX) = h_5(X) + {\rm log}_2 \hspace{0.05cm} (A) = {\rm log}_2 \hspace{0.05cm} (2A) \hspace{0.05cm}.$$
Furthermore, many of the equations derived in the chapter different entropies of two-dimensional Random Variables for the discrete-value case also apply to continuous-value random variables.
From the following compilation one can see that often only the (large) $H$ has to be replaced by a (small) $h$ as well as the probability mass function $\rm (PMF)$ by the corresponding probability density function $\rm (PDF)$ .
- Conditional Differential Entropy:
- $$H(X \hspace{-0.05cm}\mid \hspace{-0.05cm} Y) = {\rm E} \hspace{-0.1cm}\left [ {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm}\frac{1}{P_{\hspace{0.03cm}X \mid \hspace{0.03cm} Y} (X \hspace{-0.05cm}\mid \hspace{-0.05cm} Y)}\right ]=\hspace{-0.04cm} \sum_{(x, y) \hspace{0.1cm}\in \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm supp} \hspace{0.03cm}(\hspace{-0.03cm}P_{XY}\hspace{-0.08cm})} \hspace{-0.8cm} P_{XY}(x, y) \cdot {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{1}{P_{\hspace{0.03cm}X \mid \hspace{0.03cm} Y} (x \hspace{-0.05cm}\mid \hspace{-0.05cm} y)} \hspace{0.05cm}$$
- $$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}h(X \hspace{-0.05cm}\mid \hspace{-0.05cm} Y) = {\rm E} \hspace{-0.1cm}\left [ {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm}\frac{1}{f_{\hspace{0.03cm}X \mid \hspace{0.03cm} Y} (X \hspace{-0.05cm}\mid \hspace{-0.05cm} Y)}\right ]=\hspace{0.2cm} \int \hspace{-0.9cm} \int\limits_{\hspace{-0.04cm}(x, y) \hspace{0.1cm}\in \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm supp}\hspace{0.03cm}(\hspace{-0.03cm}f_{XY}\hspace{-0.08cm})} \hspace{-0.6cm} f_{XY}(x, y) \cdot {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{1}{f_{\hspace{0.03cm}X \mid \hspace{0.03cm} Y} (x \hspace{-0.05cm}\mid \hspace{-0.05cm} y)} \hspace{0.15cm}{\rm d}x\hspace{0.15cm}{\rm d}y\hspace{0.05cm}.$$
- Joint Differential Entropy:
- $$H(XY) = {\rm E} \left [ {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{1}{P_{XY}(X, Y)}\right ] =\hspace{-0.04cm} \sum_{(x, y) \hspace{0.1cm}\in \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm supp} \hspace{0.03cm}(\hspace{-0.03cm}P_{XY}\hspace{-0.08cm})} \hspace{-0.8cm} P_{XY}(x, y) \cdot {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{1}{ P_{XY}(x, y)} \hspace{0.05cm}$$
- $$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}h(XY) = {\rm E} \left [ {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{1}{f_{XY}(X, Y)}\right ] =\hspace{0.2cm} \int \hspace{-0.9cm} \int\limits_{\hspace{-0.04cm}(x, y) \hspace{0.1cm}\in \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm supp} \hspace{0.03cm}(\hspace{-0.03cm}f_{XY}\hspace{-0.08cm})} \hspace{-0.6cm} f_{XY}(x, y) \cdot {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{1}{ f_{XY}(x, y) } \hspace{0.15cm}{\rm d}x\hspace{0.15cm}{\rm d}y\hspace{0.05cm}.$$
- Chain rule of differential entropy:
- $$H(X_1\hspace{0.05cm}X_2\hspace{0.05cm}\text{...} \hspace{0.1cm}X_n) =\sum_{i = 1}^{n} H(X_i | X_1\hspace{0.05cm}X_2\hspace{0.05cm}\text{...} \hspace{0.1cm}X_{i-1}) \le \sum_{i = 1}^{n} H(X_i) \hspace{0.05cm}$$
- $$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} h(X_1\hspace{0.05cm}X_2\hspace{0.05cm}\text{...} \hspace{0.1cm}X_n) =\sum_{i = 1}^{n} h(X_i | X_1\hspace{0.05cm}X_2\hspace{0.05cm}\text{...} \hspace{0.1cm}X_{i-1}) \le \sum_{i = 1}^{n} h(X_i) \hspace{0.05cm}.$$
- Kullback–Leibler distance between the random variables $X$ and $Y$:
- $$D(P_X \hspace{0.05cm} || \hspace{0.05cm}P_Y) = {\rm E} \left [ {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{P_X(X)}{P_Y(X)}\right ] \hspace{0.2cm}=\hspace{0.2cm} \sum_{x \hspace{0.1cm}\in \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm supp} \hspace{0.03cm}(\hspace{-0.03cm}P_{X})\hspace{-0.8cm}} P_X(x) \cdot {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{P_X(x)}{P_Y(x)} \ge 0$$
- $$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}D(f_X \hspace{0.05cm} || \hspace{0.05cm}f_Y) = {\rm E} \left [ {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{f_X(X)}{f_Y(X)}\right ] \hspace{0.2cm}= \hspace{-0.4cm}\int\limits_{x \hspace{0.1cm}\in \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm supp}\hspace{0.03cm}(\hspace{-0.03cm}f_{X}\hspace{-0.08cm})} \hspace{-0.4cm} f_X(x) \cdot {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{f_X(x)}{f_Y(x)} \hspace{0.15cm}{\rm d}x \ge 0 \hspace{0.05cm}.$$
Differentielle Entropie einiger spitzenwertbegrenzter Zufallsgrößen
Die Tabelle zeigt die Ergebnisse hinsichtlich der differentiellen Entropie für drei beispielhafte Wahrscheinlichkeitsdichtefunktionen $f_X(x)$. Diese sind alle spitzenwertbegrenzt, das heißt, es gilt jeweils $|X| ≤ A$.
- Bei Spitzenwertbegrenzung kann man die differentielle Entropie stets wie folgt darstellen:
- $$h(X) = {\rm log}\,\, ({\it \Gamma}_{\rm A} \cdot A).$$
Das Argument ${\it \Gamma}_A · A$ ist unabhängig davon, welchen Logarithmus man verwendet. Anzufügen ist
- bei Verwendung von $\ln$ die Pseudo–Einheit „nat”,
- bei Verwendung von $\log_2$ die Pseudo–Einheit „bit”.
$\text{Theorem:}$ Unter der Nebenbedingung Spitzenwertbegrenzung (englisch: Peak Constraint) ⇒ also WDF $f_X(x) = 0$ für $ \vert x \vert > A$ – führt die Gleichverteilung zur maximalen differentiellen Entropie:
- $$h_{\rm max}(X) = {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} (2A)\hspace{0.05cm}.$$
Hier ist die geeignete Kenngröße ${\it \Gamma}_{\rm A} = 2$ maximal. Sie finden den Beweis am Ende dieses Kapitels.
Das Theorem bedeutet gleichzeitig, dass bei jeder anderen spitzenwertbegrenzten WDF (außer der Gleichverteilung) der Kennparameter ${\it \Gamma}_{\rm A} < 2$ ist.
- Für die symmetrische Dreieckverteilung ergibt sich nach obiger Tabelle ${\it \Gamma}_{\rm A} = \sqrt{\rm e} ≈ 1.649$.
- Beim einseitigen Dreieck $($zwischen $0$ und $A)$ ist demgegenüber ${\it \Gamma}_{\rm A}$ nur halb so groß.
- Auch für jedes andere Dreieck $($Breite $A$, Spitze beliebig zwischen $0$ und $A)$ gilt ${\it \Gamma}_{\rm A} ≈ 0.824$.
Die jeweils zweite $h(X)$–Angabe und die Kenngröße ${\it \Gamma}_{\rm L}$ eignet sich dagegen für den Vergleich von Zufallsgrößen bei Leistungsbegrenzung, der im nächsten Abschnitt behandelt wird. Unter dieser Nebenbedingung ist zum Beispiel die symmetrische Dreieckverteilung $({\it \Gamma}_{\rm L} ≈ 16.31)$ besser als die Gleichverteilung ${\it \Gamma}_{\rm L} = 12)$.
Differentielle Entropie einiger leistungsbegrenzter Zufallsgrößen
Die differentiellen Entropien $h(X)$ für drei beispielhafte Dichtefunktionen $f_X(x)$ ohne Begrenzung, die durch entsprechende Parameterwahl alle die gleiche Varianz $σ^2 = {\rm E}\big[|X -m_x|^2 \big]$ und damit gleiche Streuung $σ$ aufweisen, sind der folgenden Tabelle zu entnehmen. Berücksichtigt sind:
- die Gaußverteilung,
- die Laplaceverteilung ⇒ eine zweiseitige Exponentialverteilung,
- die (einseitige) Exponentialverteilung.
Die differentielle Entropie lässt sich hier stets darstellen als
- $$h(X) = 1/2 \cdot {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} ({\it \Gamma}_{\rm L} \cdot \sigma^2).$$
Das Ergebnis unterscheidet sich nur durch die Pseudo–Einheit
- „nat” bei Verwendung von $\ln$ bzw.
- „bit” bei Verwendung vo n $\log_2$.
$\text{Theorem:}$ Unter der Nebenbedingung der Leistungsbegrenzung (englisch: Power Constraint) führt die Gaußverteilung
- $$f_X(x) = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi \sigma^2} } \cdot {\rm exp} \left [ - \hspace{0.05cm}\frac{(x - m_1)^2}{2 \sigma^2}\right ]$$
unabhängig vom Mittelwert $m_1$ zur maximalen differentiellen Entropie:
- $$h(X) = 1/2 \cdot {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} (2\pi{\rm e} \cdot \sigma^2)\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}{\it \Gamma}_{\rm L} < 2π{\rm e} ≈ 17.08\hspace{0.05cm}.$$
Sie finden den Beweis am Ende dieses Kapitels.
Diese Aussage bedeutet gleichzeitig, dass für jede andere WDF als die Gaußverteilung die Kenngröße ${\it \Gamma}_{\rm L} < 2π{\rm e} ≈ 17.08$ sein wird. Beispielsweise ergibt sich der Kennwert
- für die Dreieckverteilung zu ${\it \Gamma}_{\rm L} = 6{\rm e} ≈ 16.31$,
- für die Laplaceverteilung zu ${\it \Gamma}_{\rm L} = 2{\rm e}^2 ≈ 14.78$, und
- für die Gleichverteilung zu $Γ_{\rm L} = 12$ .
Beweis: Maximale differentielle Entropie bei Spitzenwertbegrenzung
Unter der Nebenbedingung der Spitzenwertbegrenzung ⇒ $|X| ≤ A$ gilt für die differentielle Entropie:
- $$h(X) = \hspace{0.1cm} \hspace{0.05cm} \int_{-A}^{+A} \hspace{0.05cm} f_X(x) \cdot {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{1}{ f_X(x) } \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}x \hspace{0.05cm}.$$
Von allen möglichen Wahrscheinlichkeitsdichtefunktionen $f_X(x)$, die die Bedingung
- $$\int_{-A}^{+A} \hspace{0.05cm} f_X(x) \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}x = 1$$
erfüllen, ist nun diejenige Funktion $g_X(x)$ gesucht, die zur maximalen differentiellen Entropie $h(X)$ führt.
Zur Herleitung benutzen wir das Verfahren der Lagrange–Multiplikatoren:
- Wir definieren die Lagrange–Kenngröße $L$ in der Weise, dass darin sowohl $h(X)$ als auch die Nebenbedingung $|X| ≤ A$ enthalten sind:
- $$L= \hspace{0.1cm} \hspace{0.05cm} \int_{-A}^{+A} \hspace{0.05cm} f_X(x) \cdot {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{1}{ f_X(x) } \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}x \hspace{0.5cm}+ \hspace{0.5cm} \lambda \cdot \int_{-A}^{+A} \hspace{0.05cm} f_X(x) \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}x \hspace{0.05cm}.$$
- Wir setzen allgemein $f_X(x) = g_X(x) + ε · ε_X(x)$, wobei $ε_X(x)$ eine beliebige Funktion darstellt, mit der Einschränkung, dass die WDF–Fläche gleich $1$ sein muss. Damit erhalten wir:
- $$\begin{align*}L = \hspace{0.1cm} \hspace{0.05cm} \int_{-A}^{+A} \hspace{0.05cm}\big [ g_X(x) + \varepsilon \cdot \varepsilon_X(x)\big ] \cdot {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{1}{ g_X(x) + \varepsilon \cdot \varepsilon_X(x) } \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}x + \lambda \cdot \int_{-A}^{+A} \hspace{0.05cm} \big [ g_X(x) + \varepsilon \cdot \varepsilon_X(x) \big ] \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}x \hspace{0.05cm}.\end{align*}$$
- Die bestmögliche Funktion ergibt sich dann, wenn es für $ε = 0$ eine stationäre Lösung gibt:
- $$\left [\frac{{\rm d}L}{{\rm d}\varepsilon} \right ]_{\varepsilon \hspace{0.05cm}= \hspace{0.05cm}0}=\hspace{0.1cm} \hspace{0.05cm} \int_{-A}^{+A} \hspace{0.05cm} \varepsilon_X(x) \cdot \big [ {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{1}{ g_X(x) } -1 \big ]\hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}x \hspace{0.3cm} + \hspace{0.3cm}\lambda \cdot \int_{-A}^{+A} \hspace{0.05cm} \varepsilon_X(x) \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}x \stackrel{!}{=} 0 \hspace{0.05cm}.$$
- Diese Bedingungsgleichung ist unabhängig von $ε_X$ nur dann zu erfüllen, wenn gilt:
- $${\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{1}{ g_X(x) } -1 + \lambda = 0 \hspace{0.4cm} \forall x \in \big[-A, +A \big]\hspace{0.3cm} \Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} g_X(x) = {\rm const.}\hspace{0.4cm} \forall x \in \big [-A, +A \big]\hspace{0.05cm}.$$
$\text{Resümee bei Spitzenwertbegrenzung:}$
Die maximale differentielle Entropie ergibt sich unter der Nebenbedingung $ \vert X \vert ≤ A$ für die Gleichverteilung (englisch: Uniform PDF):
- $$h_{\rm max}(X) = {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} ({\it \Gamma}_{\rm A} \cdot A) = {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} (2A) \hspace{0.5cm} \Rightarrow\hspace{0.5cm} {\it \Gamma}_{\rm A} = 2 \hspace{0.05cm}.$$
Jede andere Zufallsgröße mit der WDF–Eigenschaft $f_X(\vert x \vert > A) = 0$ führt zu einer kleineren differentiellen Entropie, gekennzeichnet durch den Parameter ${\it \Gamma}_{\rm A} < 2$.
Beweis: Maximale differentielle Entropie bei Leistungsbegrenzung
Vorneweg zur Begriffserklärung:
- Eigentlich wird nicht die Leistung ⇒ das zweite Moment $m_2$ begrenzt, sondern das zweite Zentralmoment ⇒ Varianz $μ_2 = σ^2$.
- Gesucht wird also nun die maximale differentielle Entropie unter der Nebenbedingung ${\rm E}\big[|X – m_1|^2 \big] ≤ σ^2$.
- Das $≤$–Zeichen dürfen wir hierbei durch das Gleichheitszeichen ersetzen.
Lassen wir nur mittelwertfreie Zufallsgrößen zu, so umgehen wir das Problem. Damit lautet der Lagrange-Multiplikator:
- $$L= \hspace{0.1cm} \hspace{0.05cm} \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \hspace{-0.1cm} f_X(x) \cdot {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{1}{ f_X(x) } \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}x \hspace{0.1cm}+ \hspace{0.1cm} \lambda_1 \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \hspace{-0.1cm} f_X(x) \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}x \hspace{0.1cm}+ \hspace{0.1cm} \lambda_2 \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty}\hspace{-0.1cm} x^2 \cdot f_X(x) \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}x \hspace{0.05cm}.$$
Nach ähnlichem Vorgehen wie beim Beweis für Spitzenwertbegrenzung zeigt sich, dass die „bestmögliche” Funktion $g_X(x) \sim {\rm e}^{–λ_2\hspace{0.05cm} · \hspace{0.05cm} x^2}$ sein muss ⇒ Gaußverteilung:
- $$g_X(x) ={1}/{\sqrt{2\pi \sigma^2}} \cdot {\rm e}^{ - \hspace{0.05cm}{x^2}/{(2 \sigma^2)} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$
Wir verwenden hier aber für den expliziten Beweis die Kullback–Leibler–Distanz zwischen einer geeigneten allgemeinen WDF $f_X(x)$ und der Gauß–WDF $g_X(x)$:
- $$D(f_X \hspace{0.05cm} || \hspace{0.05cm}g_X) = \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \hspace{0.02cm} f_X(x) \cdot {\rm ln} \hspace{0.1cm} \frac{f_X(x)}{g_X(x)} \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}x = -h(X) - I_2\hspace{0.3cm} \Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}I_2 = \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \hspace{0.02cm} f_X(x) \cdot {\rm ln} \hspace{0.1cm} {g_X(x)} \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}x \hspace{0.05cm}.$$
Zur Vereinfachung ist hier der natürliche Logarithmus ⇒ $\ln$ verwendet. Damit erhalten wir für das zweite Integral:
- $$I_2 = - \frac{1}{2} \cdot {\rm ln} \hspace{0.1cm} (2\pi\sigma^2) \cdot \hspace{-0.1cm}\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \hspace{-0.4cm} f_X(x) \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}x \hspace{0.3cm}- \hspace{0.3cm} \frac{1}{2\sigma^2} \cdot \hspace{-0.1cm}\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \hspace{0.02cm} x^2 \cdot f_X(x) \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}x \hspace{0.05cm}.$$
Das erste Integral ist definitionsgemäß gleich $1$ und das zweite Integral ergibt $σ^2$:
- $$I_2 = - {1}/{2} \cdot {\rm ln} \hspace{0.1cm} (2\pi\sigma^2) - {1}/{2} \cdot [{\rm ln} \hspace{0.1cm} ({\rm e})] = - {1}/{2} \cdot {\rm ln} \hspace{0.1cm} (2\pi{\rm e} \cdot \sigma^2)$$
- $$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} D(f_X \hspace{0.05cm} || \hspace{0.05cm}g_X) = -h(X) - I_2 = -h(X) + {1}/{2} \cdot {\rm ln} \hspace{0.1cm} (2\pi{\rm e} \cdot \sigma^2)\hspace{0.05cm}.$$
Da auch bei wertkontinuierlichen Zufallsgrößen die Kullback–Leibler–Distanz stets $\ge 0$ ist, erhält man nach Verallgemeinerung („ln” ⇒ „log”):
- $$h(X) \le {1}/{2} \cdot {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} (2\pi{\rm e} \cdot \sigma^2)\hspace{0.05cm}.$$
Das Gleichzeichen gilt nur, wenn die Zufallsgröße $X$ gaußverteilt ist.
$\text{Resümee bei Leistungsbegrenzung:}$
Die maximale differentielle Entropie ergibt sich unter der Bedingung ${\rm E}\big[ \vert X – m_1 \vert ^2 \big] ≤ σ^2$ unabhängig von $m_1$ für die Gaußverteilung (englisch: Gaussian PDF):
- $$h_{\rm max}(X) = {1}/{2} \cdot {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} ({\it \Gamma}_{\hspace{-0.01cm} \rm L} \cdot \sigma^2) = {1}/{2} \cdot {\rm log} \hspace{0.1cm} (2\pi{\rm e} \cdot \sigma^2) \hspace{0.5cm} \Rightarrow\hspace{0.5cm} {\it \Gamma}_{\rm L} = 2\pi{\rm e} \hspace{0.05cm}.$$
Jede andere wertkontinuierliche Zufallsgröße $X$ mit Varianz ${\rm E}\big[ \vert X – m_1 \vert ^2 \big] ≤ σ^2$ führt zu einem kleineren Wert, gekennzeichnet durch die Kenngröße ${\it \Gamma}_{\rm L} < 2πe$.
Aufgaben zum Kapitel
Aufgabe 4.1: WDF, VTF und Wahrscheinlichkeit
Aufgabe 4.1Z: Momentenberechnung
Aufgabe 4.2: Dreieckförmige WDF
Aufgabe 4.2Z: Gemischte Zufallsgrößen
Aufgabe 4.3: WDF–Vergleich bezüglich differentieller Entropie
Aufgabe 4.3Z: Exponential– und Laplaceverteilung
Aufgabe 4.4: Herkömmliche Entropie und differenzielle Entropie