Laplace Transform and p-Transfer Function

Considered system model

We consider a linear time-invariant system with the impulse response $h(t)$, whose input the signal $x(t)$ is applied to. The output signal $y(t)$ is then obtained as the convolution product $x(t) ∗ h(t)$.

General (also non-causal) and causal system model

For non-causal systems and signals, the »first Fourier integral« must always be applied to describe the spectral behavior and the following is valid for the output spectrum:

$$Y(f) = X(f) \cdot H(f) \hspace{0.05cm}.$$

The Fourier integral also continues to be valid for causal systems and signals, i.e. under the assumption

$$x(t) = 0 \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm{for}} \hspace{0.2cm} t<0\hspace{0.05cm},\hspace{0.2cm} h(t) = 0 \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm{for}} \hspace{0.2cm} t<0 \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} y(t) = 0 \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm{for}} \hspace{0.2cm} t<0 \hspace{0.05cm}.$$

In this case, however, there are significant advantages in applying the »Laplace transformation« while taking into account certain restrictions:

The systems treated in this way are always realizable by a circuit. The developer is not tempted to offer unrealistic solutions.
The Laplace transform $X_{\rm L}(p)$ is always a real function of the spectral variable $p$.
The fact that this variable is derived from the multiplication of the physical angular frequency $ω = 2πf$ by the imaginary unit $\rm j$ according to $p = {\rm j} · 2πf$ does not matter for the user.
The implicit condition $x(t) = 0$ for $t < 0$ specifically allows for simpler analysis of transient
behavior after switching-on processes than with the Fourier integral.

Definition of the Laplace transformation

Starting from the »first Fourier integral«

$$X(f) = \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} { x(t) \hspace{0.05cm}\cdot \hspace{0.05cm} {\rm e}^{-{\rm j}\hspace{0.05cm} 2\pi f t}}\hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}t,$$

the Laplace transformation is obtained directly by using the formal substitution $p = {\rm j} · 2πf$ for a causal time function $x(t) = 0 \ \ \ \text{for} \ \ \ t < 0.$

$\text{Definition:}$ The »Laplace transform« of a causal time function $x(t)$ is:

$$X_{\rm L}(p) = \int_{0}^{\infty} { x(t) \hspace{0.05cm}\cdot \hspace{0.05cm} {\rm e}^{-p t} }\hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}t\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm briefly}\hspace{0.3cm} X_{\rm L}(p) \quad \bullet\!\!-\!\!\!-^{\hspace{-0.25cm}\rm L}\!\!\!-\!\!\circ\quad x(t)\hspace{0.05cm}.$$

The relationship between the Laplace transform $X_{\rm L}(p)$ and the physical spectrum $X(f)$ is often given as follows:

$$X(f) = X_{\rm L}(p) \Bigg |_{{\hspace{0.1cm} p\hspace{0.05cm}={\rm \hspace{0.05cm} j\hspace{0.05cm}2\pi \it f}}}.$$

However, if the signal $x(t)$ has periodic components and thus the spectral function $X(f)$ contains Dirac delta functions, then this equation is not applicable.
In this case, $p = α + {\rm j} · 2πf$ must be applied and then the limit $α → 0$ must be formed.

$\text{Example 1:}$ We assume the unilaterally and exponentially decreasing signal corresponding to $\text{Example 1}$ of chapter »Conclusions from the Allocation Theorem«:

$$x(t) = \left\{ \begin{array}{c} 0 \\ 0.5 \\ {\rm e}^{-t/T} \end{array} \right.\quad \quad \begin{array}{c} {\rm{for} } \\ {\rm{for} } \\ {\rm{for} } \end{array}\begin{array}{*{20}c}{ t < 0\hspace{0.05cm},} \\ { t = 0\hspace{0.05cm},} \\{ t > 0\hspace{0.05cm}.} \end{array}$$

Thus, the Laplace transform is:

$$X_{\rm L}(p) = \int_{0}^{\infty} {\rm e}^{-t/T} \cdot {\rm e}^{-pt} \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm d}t= \frac {1}{p + 1/T} \cdot {{\rm e}^{-(p+1/T) \hspace{0.08cm}\cdot \hspace{0.08cm}t}}\hspace{0.15cm}\Bigg \vert_{t \hspace{0.05cm}=\hspace{0.05cm} 0}^{\infty}= \frac {1}{p + 1/T} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$

Considering $p = {\rm j} · 2πf$, the conventional spectral function with respect to $f$ is obtained:

$$X(f) = \frac {1}{{\rm j \cdot 2\pi \it f} + 1/T} = \frac {T}{1+{\rm j \cdot 2\pi \it fT}} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$

In contrast, if we consider the frequency response of a low-pass filter of first-order whose impulse response $h(t)$ differs from the above time function by the factor $1/T$, then the following holds for the Laplace transform and the Fourier transform, respectively:

$$H_{\rm L}(p)= \frac {1/T}{p + 1/T}= \frac {1}{1 + p \cdot T} \hspace{0.05cm} , \hspace{0.8cm}H(f) = \frac {1}{1+{\rm j \cdot 2\pi \it fT} } = \frac {1}{1+{\rm j} \cdot f/f_{\rm G} } \hspace{0.05cm} .$$

In this equation, the »3 dB cut-off frequency« $f_{\rm G} = 1/(2πT)$ $($German: "Grenzfrequenz" ⇒ subscript "G"$)$ is used instead of the parameter $T$.

Some important Laplace correspondences

Some important Laplace correspondences are compiled subsequently. All time signals $x(t)$ considered here are assumed to be dimensionless. For this reason, $X_{\rm L}(p)$ then always has the unit »second« as an integral over time.

Table with some Laplace transforms

The Laplace transform of the »Dirac delta function« $δ(t)$ is $X_{\rm L}(p) = 1$ $($diagram $\rm A)$.
$X_{\rm L}(p) = 1/p$ is obtained for the »unit jump function« $γ(t)$ $($diagram $\rm B)$ by applying the »integration theorem«.
From this the Laplace transform of the »linearly increasing function« $x(t) = t/T$ for $t > 0$ is obtained by multiplication by $1/(pT)$ $($diagram $\rm C)$.
The »rectangular function« can be generated by subtraction of two jump functions $γ(t)$ and $γ(t – T)$ separated by $T$ so that the Laplace transform $X_{\rm L}(p) = (1 – {\rm e}^{–pT})/p$ is obtained according to the »shifting theorem« $($diagram $\rm D)$.
By integration the »ramp function« or after multiplication by $1/(pT)$ its Laplace transform is obtained from it $($diagram $\rm E)$.
The »exponential function« $($diagram $\rm F)$ has already been considered in the »last section« . Considering the factor $1/T$, this is at the same time the impulse response of a low-pass filter of first-order.
The Laplace transform of a second-order low-pass ⇒ function $x(t) = t/T · {\rm e}^{–t/T}$ is obtained by squaring $($diagram $\rm G)$.
In addition to the causal $\rm sinc$–function $($diagram $\rm H)$, the Laplace transforms of the »causal cosine and sine functions« $($diagrams $\rm I$ and $\rm J)$, which result in $p/(p^2 + ω_0^2)$ resp. $ω_0/(p^2 + ω_0^2)$ are also given in the table.
Here, $ω_0 = 2πf_0 = 2π/T$ denotes the »angular frequency«.

Pole-zero representation of circuits

Any »linear time-invariant system« $\rm (LTI)$ which can be realized by a circuit of discrete time-constant components such as

resistances $(R)$,
capacitances $(C)$,
inductances $(L)$ and
amplifier elements,

have a fractional-rational »$p$–transfer function«:

$$H_{\rm L}(p)= \frac {A_Z \cdot p^Z +\text{...} + A_2 \cdot p^2 + A_1 \cdot p + A_0} {B_N \cdot p^N +\text{...} \ + B_2 \cdot p^2 + B_1 \cdot p + B_0}= \frac {Z(p)}{N(p)} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$

All coefficients of the numerator ⇒ $A_Z, \text{...} \ , A_0$ and of the denominator ⇒ $B_N, \text{...} , B_0$ are real. Furthermore:

$Z$ denotes the degree of the numerator polynomial $Z(p)$,
$N$ denotes the degree of the denominator polynomial $N(p)$.

$\text{Equivalent pole-zero representation:}$ The following can be formulated for the »$p$–transfer function«, too:

$$H_{\rm L}(p)= K \cdot \frac {\prod\limits_{i=1}^Z p - p_{\rm o i} } {\prod\limits_{i=1}^N p - p_{\rm x i} }= K \cdot \frac {(p - p_{\rm o 1})(p - p_{\rm o 2})\cdot \text{...} \ \cdot (p - p_{ {\rm o} \hspace{-0.03cm} Z})} {(p - p_{\rm x 1})(p - p_{\rm x 2})\cdot \text{...} \cdot (p - p_{ {\rm x} \hspace{-0.03cm} N})} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$

The $Z + N + 1$ parameters signify:

$K = A_Z/B_N$ is a constant factor. If $Z = N$, this is dimensionless.
The solutions of the equation $Z(p) = 0$ result in the $Z$ »zeros« $p_{\rm o1},\text{...} \ , p_{\rm oZ}$ of $H_{\rm L}(p)$.
The zeros of the denominator polynomial $N(p)$ yield the $N$ pole locations $($or »poles« for short$)$.

The transformation is unique. This can be seen from the fact that the $p$–transfer function is also determined only by $Z + N + 1$ free parameters according to the first equation since one of the coefficients $A_Z, \text{...} \ , A_0, B_N, \text{...} \ , B_0$ can be normalized to $1$ without changing the quotient.

Considered two-port network and associated pole-zero diagram

$\text{Example 2:}$ We consider the drawn two-port network with

an inductance $L$ $($complex resistance $pL)$ in the longitudinal branch as well as

the series connection of an ohmic resistance $R$ and a capacitance $C$ with the complex resistance $1/(pC)$ in the transverse branch.

Thus, the $p$–transfer function is:

$$H_{\rm L}(p)= \frac {Y_{\rm L}(p)} {X_{\rm L}(p)}= \frac {R + {1}/{(pC)} } {pL + R +{1}/{(pC)} }$$

$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} H_{\rm L}(p)= \frac {1 + p \cdot{RC} } {1 + p \cdot{RC}+ p^2 \cdot{LC} } \hspace{0.05cm} .$$

If $p = {\rm j} · 2πf$ is set, then the Fourier transfer function $($or the »frequency response«$)$ is obtained. If the numerator and denominator in the above equation are divided by $LC$, then the following is obtained:

$$H_{\rm L}(p)= \frac {R} {L}\cdot \frac {p + {1}/{(RC)} } {p^2 + {R}/ {L}\cdot p + {1}/{(LC)} }= K \cdot \frac {p - p_{\rm o } } {(p - p_{\rm x 1})(p - p_{\rm x 2})} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$

⇒ In the right-hand side of the equation, the transfer function $H_{\rm L}(p)$ is given in »pole-zero notation«.

By comparison of coefficients the following values are obtained for $R = 50 \ \rm Ω$, $L = 25\ \rm µ H$ and $C = 62.5 \ \rm nF$ :

the constant $K = R/L = 2 · 10^6 \cdot 1/{\rm s}$,
the zero $p_{\rm o} = -1/(RC) = -0.32 · 10^6 \cdot 1/{\rm s},$
the two poles $p_{\rm x1}$ and $p_{\rm x2}$ as the solution of the equation

$$p^2 + \frac {R} {L}\cdot p + \frac{1}{LC} = 0 \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} p_{\rm x 1,\hspace{0.05cm}2 }= -\frac {R} {2L}\pm \sqrt{\frac {R^2} {4L^2}- \frac{1}{LC} }$$

$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} p_{\rm x 1,\hspace{0.05cm}2 }= -10^6 \cdot {1}/{\rm s} \pm \sqrt{10^{12} \cdot {1} /{\rm s^2}-0.64 \cdot 10^{12} \cdot {1}/ {\rm s^2} }\hspace{0.6cm} \Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} p_{\rm x 1 }= -0.4 \cdot 10^6\cdot {1}/ {\rm s},\hspace{0.2cm}p_{\rm x 2 }= -1.6 \cdot 10^6\cdot {1}/ {\rm s} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$

In the above graph, the pole-zero diagram is given on the right-hand side.

The two axes denote the real and imaginary parts of the variable $p$, each normalized to the value $10^6 · \rm 1/s\; (= 1/µs)$.

The zero at $p_{\rm o} =\, –0.32$ can be seen as a circle and the poles at $p_{\rm x1} = \,–0.4$ and $p_{\rm x2} = \,–1.6$ as crosses.

Properties of poles and zeros

The transfer function $H_{\rm L}(p)$ of any realizable circuit is fully described by $Z$ »zeros« and $N$ »poles« together with a constant $K$ where the following restrictions apply:

$Z ≤ N$ always holds. The $p$–transfer function would also be »infinitely large« with $Z > N$ in the limiting case for $p → ∞$ $($i.e. for very high frequencies$)$.

The zeros $p_{\rm oi}$ and the poles $p_{ {\rm x}i}$ are generally complex, and have like $p$ the unit $\rm 1/s$. If $Z < N$ holds, then the constant $K$ has also a unit.

The poles and zeros can be real as shown in the last example. If they are complex, then two poles resp. two zeros always occur as complex conjugates, since $H_{\rm L}(p)$ always represents a real fractional-rational function.

All poles lie in the left half-plane or on the imaginary axis $($limiting case$)$. This property follows from the required and assumed causality together with the »fundamental function theory«, which will be stated in the next chapter.

Zeros can occur in both the left and right $p$–half-planes or also on the imaginary axis. An example of zeros in the right half-plane can be found in $\text{Exercise 3.4Z}$, which deals with all-pass filters.

In so-called »minimum-phase systems«, not only poles are forbidden in the right $p$–half-plane but also zeros. The real part of all singularities here is never positive.

These properties are now illustrated by three examples.

$\text{Example 3:}$ Starting from the »two-port network« $(L$ in the longitudinal branch, $R$ and $C$ in the transverse branch$)$ the characteristic quantities of the transfer function can be given as follows:

Location of the zero and the poles for $Z = 1$ and $N = 2$

$$K = 2A, \hspace{0.2cm}p_{\rm x 1,\hspace{0.05cm}2 }= -A \pm \sqrt{A^2-B^2},$$

$$p_{\rm o }= - \frac{B^2}{2A} \hspace{0.05cm} \hspace{0.2cm} {\rm with } \hspace{0.2cm} A = \frac {R} {2L}, \hspace{0.2cm}B = \frac{1}{\sqrt{LC} } \hspace{0.05cm}.$$

The graph shows three different diagrams with different capacitance values $C$.

$R = 50 \ \rm Ω$ and $L = 25 \ \rm µ H$ always hold.

The axes are normalized to $A = R/(2L) = 10^6 · \rm 1/s$.

The constant factor is $K = 2A = 2 · 10^6 · \rm 1/s.$

$\text{Example 3.1:}$
For $B < A$, »two real poles« and »one zero« to the right of $-A/2$ are obtained. The following arises as a result for $C = 62.5 \ \rm nF$ ⇒ $ {B}/ {A}= 0.8 $ $($left diagram$)$:

$$ p_{\rm x 1}/A = -0.4 , \hspace{0.2cm}p_{\rm x 2}/A= -1.6 , \hspace{0.2cm}p_{\rm o}/A= -0.32 \hspace{0.05cm} .$$

$\text{Example 3.2:}$
For $B > A$, »two conjugate-complex poles« and »one zero« to the left of $-A/2$ are obtained. For $C = 8 \ \rm nF$ ⇒ $ {B}/ {A}= \sqrt{5} $ $($right diagram$)$:

$$p_{\rm x 1,\hspace{0.05cm}2 }/A= -1\pm {\rm j}\cdot 2,\hspace{0.2cm}p_{\rm o}/A\approx -2.5 \hspace{0.05cm} .$$

$\text{Example 3.3:}$
The case $A = B$ leads to »a real double pole« and »one zero« at $– A/2$. For $C = 400 \ \rm nF$ ⇒ $ {B}/ {A}= 1 $ $($middle diagram$)$:

$$ p_{\rm x 1}/A= p_{\rm x 2}/A= -1, \hspace{0.2cm}p_{\rm o}/A= -0.5 \hspace{0.05cm} .$$

The impulse responses $h(t)$ are obtained according to the following chapter »Inverse Laplace Transform« as follows:

For the left constellation, $h(t)$ is »aperiodically decaying«.
For the right constellation, $h(t)$ is »attenuated-oscillatory«.
The middle constellation is called the »critically attenuated case«.

Graphical determination of attenuation and phase

For the computation of attenuation and phase

The $p$–transfer function is given in pole-zero notation:

$$H_{\rm L}(p)= K \cdot \frac {\prod\limits_{i=1}^Z (p - p_{\rm o i})} {\prod\limits_{i=1}^N (p - p_{\rm x i})}= K \cdot \frac {(p - p_{\rm o 1})(p - p_{\rm o 2})\cdot \text{...} \cdot (p - p_{ {\rm o} \hspace{-0.03cm} Z})} {(p - p_{\rm x 1})(p - p_{\rm x 2})\cdot \text{...} \cdot (p - p_{ {\rm x} \hspace{-0.03cm} N})} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$

The conventional frequency response $H(f)$ is obtained by replacing the argument $p$ of $H_{\rm L}(p)$ by ${\rm j} \cdot 2πf$ :

$$H(f)= K \cdot \frac {({\rm j} \cdot 2\pi \hspace{-0.05cm}f - p_{\rm o 1})({\rm j} \cdot 2\pi \hspace{-0.05cm}f - p_{\rm o 2})\cdot \text{...} \cdot ({\rm j} \cdot 2\pi \hspace{-0.05cm}f - p_{ {\rm o} \hspace{-0.03cm} Z})} {({\rm j} \cdot 2\pi \hspace{-0.05cm}f - p_{\rm x 1})({\rm j} \cdot 2\pi \hspace{-0.05cm}f - p_{\rm x 2})\cdot \text{...}\cdot ({\rm j} \cdot 2\pi \hspace{-0.05cm}f - p_{ {\rm x} \hspace{-0.03cm} N})} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$

We now consider a fixed frequency $f$ and describe the distances and angles of all »zeros« $($circles$)$ by vectors:

$$R_{ {\rm o} i} = {\rm j} \cdot 2\pi \hspace{-0.05cm}f - p_{ {\rm o} i}= |R_{{\rm o} i}| \cdot {\rm e}^{\hspace{0.03cm}{\rm j}\hspace{0.03cm}\cdot\hspace{0.03cm}\phi_{ {\rm o} i} }, \hspace{0.3cm}i= 1, \text{...}\ , Z \hspace{0.05cm} .$$

We proceed in the same way for the »poles« $($crosses$)$:

$$R_{ {\rm x} i} = {\rm j} \cdot 2\pi \hspace{-0.05cm}f - p_{ {\rm x} i}= |R_{ {\rm x} i}| \cdot {\rm e}^{\hspace{0.03cm}{\rm j}\hspace{0.03cm}\cdot\hspace{0.03cm}\phi_{ {\rm x} i} }, \hspace{0.3cm}i= 1, \text{...}\ , N \hspace{0.05cm} .$$

The graph shows the magnitudes and phase angles for a system with

$Z = 2$ zeros (circles) in the right half-plane
$N = 2$ poles (crosses) in the left half-plane.
constant $K$.

The following can be written for the frequency response with this vector representation:

$$H(f)= K \cdot \frac {|R_{ {\rm o} 1}| \cdot |R_{ {\rm o} 2}|\cdot ... \cdot |R_{ {\rm o} \hspace{-0.03cm} Z}|} {|R_{ {\rm x} 1}| \cdot |R_{ {\rm x} 2}|\cdot \text{...} \cdot |R_{ {\rm x} \hspace{-0.03cm} N}|} \cdot {\rm e^{\hspace{0.03cm}{\rm j} \hspace{0.05cm}\cdot [ \phi_{ {\rm o} 1}\hspace{0.1cm}+ \hspace{0.1cm}\phi_{ {\rm o} 2} \hspace{0.1cm}+ \hspace{0.1cm}\hspace{0.1cm}\text{...}. \hspace{0.1cm} + \hspace{0.1cm}\phi_{ {\rm o} \hspace{-0.03cm}{\it Z}}\hspace{0.1cm}- \hspace{0.1cm}\phi_{ {\rm x} 1}\hspace{0.1cm}- \hspace{0.1cm}\phi_{ {\rm x} 2} \hspace{0.1cm}- \hspace{0.1cm}... \hspace{0.1cm} - \hspace{0.1cm} \phi_{ {\rm x} \hspace{-0.03cm}{\it N} }]} } \hspace{0.05cm} .$$

If $H(f)$ is expressed by the attenuation function $a(f)$ and the phase function $b(f)$ according to the generally valid relation $H(f) = {\rm e}^{-a(f)\hspace{0.05cm}- \hspace{0.05cm}{\rm j} \hspace{0.05cm}\cdot \hspace{0.05cm}b(f)}$, then the following result is obtained by comparing with the above equation:

With a suitable normalization of all dimensional quantities the following holds for the »attenuation function« in Neper $(1 \ \rm Np$ corresponds to $8.686 \ \rm dB)$:

$$a(f) = -{\rm ln} \hspace{0.1cm} K + \sum \limits_{i=1}^N {\rm ln} \hspace{0.1cm} |R_{ {\rm x} i}|- \sum \limits_{i=1}^Z {\rm ln} \hspace{0.1cm} |R_{ {\rm o} i}| \hspace{0.05cm} .$$

The »phase function« in radian $\rm (rad)$ arises as a result according to the upper sketch:

$$b(f) = \phi_K + \sum \limits_{i=1}^N \phi_{ {\rm x} i}- \sum \limits_{i=1}^Z \phi_{ {\rm o} i}\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm with} \hspace{0.2cm} \phi_K = \left\{ \begin{array}{c} 0 \\ \pi \end{array} \right. \begin{array}{c} {\rm{for} } \\ {\rm{for} } \end{array}\begin{array}{*{20}c} { K > 0\hspace{0.05cm},} \\ { K <0\hspace{0.05cm}.} \end{array}$$

$\text{Example 4:}$ The graphic illustrates the calculation of

For the computation of the attenuation and phase functions $($screen capture of the program »Causal Systems & Laplace Transformation» in an earlier German version$)$

the attenuation function $a(f)$ ⇒ red curve, and
the phase function $b(f)$ ⇒ green curve

of a two-port network which is defined by

the factor $K = 1.5$,
one zero at $-3$ and
two poles at $–1 \pm {\rm j} · 4$.

The given numerical values are valid for the frequency $2πf = 3$:

$$a \big [f = {3}/({2\pi}) \big ] = 0.453\,\,{\rm Np}= 3.953\,\,{\rm dB}$$

$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.4cm}\big \vert H \big [f = {3}/({2\pi}) \big ]\big \vert = 0.636,$$

$$ b\big [f = {3}/({2\pi}) \big ] = -8.1^\circ \hspace{0.05cm} .$$

The derivation of these numerical values is illustrated in the framed block. For the magnitude frequency response $\vert H(f)\vert$ ⇒ blue curve, a band-pass-like curve shape is obtained with

$$\vert H(f = 0)\vert \approx 0.25\hspace{0.05cm},$$

$$\vert H(f = {3}/(2\pi)\vert \approx 0636\hspace{0.05cm},$$

$$\vert H(f \rightarrow \infty)\vert= 0 \hspace{0.05cm}.$$